Economic Life

Fishing was the mainstay of the Wakashan economy. Salmon, caught on hooks, in nets, or in traps, were taken in huge numbers. Halibut, as important as salmon to the outer coast groups, were taken with hooks on long lines from offshore banks, often far out at sea. Lingcod, flounder, and rockfish offered welcome variety in the diet. Huge schools of herring were taken during their spawning runs in nets or with an ingenious device termed a “herring rake” – a pole studded with sharp bone teeth which was swept through the water. Herring were also important for their roe, which was collected on evergreen boughs in the spawning beds. Another small fish, the eulachon, was highly valued for its oil, which was used as a sauce on a variety of foods. It was netted in quantity, allowed to “ripen” for a short period, and then cooked in large wooden vats to extract the oil. Many Kwakwaka’wakw groups congregated at the head of Knight Inlet for the spring eulachon fishery, as did the Oweekeno in Rivers Inlet, while other groups had to rely on trade for this important commodity.

Hunting also played an important economic role. Deer and elk were hunted throughout Wakashan territory, while mountain goats were important to more inland groups. It was the mammals of the sea, however, that were most prized. Seals, sea lions, and porpoises were hunted, generally by harpooning from canoes. Only the southern Wakashans set out to sea in pursuit of whales, which also were harpooned. Success in such a venture required ritual preparation involving fasting and ceremonial bathing. In addition, small shrines containing human skulls or corpses were used in rituals to cause dead whales to drift ashore. Whales and other sea mammals provided a large part of the diet for the Nuu-chah-nulth and Ditidaht, a fact that enhanced the prestige of successful whaling chiefs.

Also essential to the coastal diet were various gathered foods. Clams, mussels, abalone, barnacles, sea urchins, and seaweeds were readily available in the intertidal zone. The deep deposits of crushed shells that mark ancient village sites throughout this area are testimony to the importance of such foods. Various roots, bulbs, and a wide range of berries also contributed to the diet.

To exploit resources throughout their territories, most Wakashan groups followed a seasonal pattern of movement. Such important locations as salmon streams, herring spawning areas, clam beds, clover-root fields, and berry patches were the exclusive property of particular kin groups. Many resources were dried for later consumption, particularly during the winter months. Such preserved foodstuffs were stored in boxes or hung from the rafters in the houses.

European arrival and the maritime trade led to a new focus on hunting for furs. The collapse of the maritime trade left the Nuu-chah-nulth and Ditidaht in relative isolation, while the establishment of Hudson’s Bay Company posts provided trade opportunities for the Heiltsuk and Kwakwaka’wakw. For the southern Wakashans, trade again picked up in the 1850s when they became major suppliers of dogfish oil, used as a lubricant in the logging industry.

The Wakashans were able to turn traditional skills to advantage in the new economy. Many men applied their knowledge of fishing for salmon to work as commercial fishermen, while large numbers of women found employment in the canneries which sprang up along the coast. Entire families moved seasonally as such jobs became available. In addition, many Nuu-chah-nulth and some Kwakwaka’wakw men turned to commercial fur-seal hunting. Sealing schooners took the hunters on lengthy expeditions across the Pacific in pursuit of the fur-seal herds. This lucrative enterprise continued well into the twentieth century, until it was halted by international treaty.

Economic change had visible architectural effects in Wakashan villages. The northern Wakashans, in particular, began to incorporate milled lumber, windows, and other European elements into their houses. Such status indicators as free-standing carved poles outside the houses of important individuals also became more abundant in these late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century northern Wakashan villages.

Resource industries such as fishing and logging still dominate the economy throughout the Wakashan area. Fleets of native-owned fishing boats are a feature of many Wakashan communities, although government regulations and declining fish stocks have eroded the importance of the commercial fishery in recent years. The growth of nearby cities and towns has also added wider opportunities for wage labour. At the same time, Wakashan First Nations are taking the initiative in new economic ventures, many of which are related to tourism. The Nuu-chah-nulth operate whale-watching expeditions and heritage tours for visitors, and the Kwakwaka’wakw display their culture in two on-reserve museums. Modern hotels, run by a Nuu-chah-nulth group near Tofino and by the Kwakwaka’wakw at Cape Mudge, feature elements of native culture. In more isolated communities, however, the lack of economic opportunities has led many individuals and families to relocate off-reserve.