Origins

People in Canada who identify as Austrians may have come from the present-day country of Austria or from territories within the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, or Austria-Hungary. By the second half of the nineteenth century, that empire was a vast realm ruled by the Habsburg dynasty. Its territorial extent encompassed what are now the countries of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Croatia, as well as parts of Italy, Poland, Ukraine, Romania, and Yugoslavia (Serbia).

Austria-Hungary was divided into two parts: the Hungarian kingdom, and sixteen provinces (Ländern) that together were popularly designated as the “Austrian half” of the empire. Among the sixteen provinces were those (Upper and Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, Voralberg) that today are for the most part within the boundaries of present-day Austria, as well as several (including Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, Bukovina, and Carniola) that are at present in several neighbouring east-central European countries. A seventeenth province, Bosnia-Herzegovina, was administered jointly by the governments of both the Austrian and Hungarian “halves” of the monarchy.

Austria-Hungary’s demographic composition was as complex as its administrative structure. Of the ten major nationalities, German-speakers, or Austro-Germans, comprised 23 percent of the empire’s population. Whereas the majority of the German-speakers lived in provinces that were to become present-day Austria, there were also many who lived in other parts of the Habsburg monarchy. Some inhabited provinces within the “Austrian half” of the monarchy, in particular Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, Bukovina, and Carniola; others were found in various areas of the Hungarian kingdom (Burgenland, Transylvania, Banat, Spiš/Zips county, and so on). The Austro-Germans dispersed throughout the Habsburg monarchy often described themselves by regional names, such as Danube Swabians from the Banat, Saxons from Transylvania, Zipser Germans from Spiš county in Slovakia, or Galician Germans. Notwithstanding their place of residence and whether or not they used a regional name, the Empire’s German-speakers were often described simply as Austrians.

At the close of World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed. In November 1918 the solidly Austro-German territories in the western part of the former monarchy formed a republic called German-Austria (Deutschösterreich), which immediately expressed a wish to unite with Germany. The victorious western Entente refused to allow such a union. Consequently, a newly independent state called Austria came into being.

The idea that Austria might unite with its larger neighbour to the north was given a new impetus during the 1930s, when Nazi leader Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Pressure from Nazi Germany, combined with sympathy within Austria, resulted in the unification, or Anschluss, of February 1938. Austria remained an integral part of Hitler’s Third Reich until its defeat in World War II. After the war, Austria, like Germany, was divided into four occupation zones (American, British, French, Soviet), but in 1955 the Allies withdrew and Austria was declared a neutral state. By that time, any sentiment for unity with Germany had virtually disappeared; instead, a sense of Austrian national distinctiveness was promoted and has taken firm root among the population.

Despite their existence as a distinct people, Austrians continue to speak various dialects of German and to use standard German (Hochdeutsch) as their literary language. In contrast to other German-speaking countries of Europe, the vast majority of Austrians (80 percent) are practising or nominally Roman Catholics. Catholic traditions tend to pervade Austrian life, although Austria is a secular state.

AUSTRIANS Migration Migration

The migration of Austrians to Canada has taken place over a long period. Among the newcomers have been immigrants, sojourners, and exiles. Austrian soldiers enlisted as mercenaries in French regiments came to New France in small numbers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, particularly during the last years of the French regime. The first Austrians to visit British Columbia were crew members of ships of the Ostend Company trading in sea-otter pelts in the late 1700s.

However, emigration on a large scale from the Austro-Hungarian Empire did not occur until the end of the nineteenth century, and the influx of Austrians into Canada before the 1930s was numerically insignificant. The vast majority of early immigrants from the region were of Slavic origin, although individuals and families came from all the German-speaking Austrian provinces. But with the exception of Burgenland and to some extent Tyrol and Voralberg, inhabitants of present-day Austria did not emigrate in large numbers. The Austrian community in Canada therefore consists primarily of immigrants who came after World War I and particularly after World War II and their descendants.

Three phases of immigration can be identified: the thirty years before World War I, the inter-war period, and after World War II. Prior to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, most newcomers were from the eastern provinces and belonged predominantly to the farming classes. These Slavic peasants were described as Ruthenians, Galicians, and Bukovinians. (See also CARPATHO-RUSYNS; POLES; UKRAINIANS.) The province of Galicia in 1903–4 supplied 7,729, or 78 percent, of so-called Austrian immigrants to Canada, and Bukovina in the same year provided 1,578, or 15.9 percent. In these regions, land holdings were generally below the five hectares necessary for subsistence. Unfair treatment by landlords, taxation, and an increasing scarcity of land by the end of the nineteenth century forced younger people to join the growing numbers of landless workers that a backward industrialization process was unable to absorb. Overpopulation, poor economic conditions, compulsory military service, and political unrest also contributed to the exodus of thousands seeking to escape poverty. In addition, ethno-political factors, such as attempts by the authorities to eliminate German schools and suppress the German language, convinced many German-speaking people from Galicia, Bukovina, and the Banat to emigrate.

Between 1901 and 1914 some immigrants of Austrian origin also came to Canada from the United States, where it had become more difficult for farmers to establish their sons on their own farms. They were wooed to Canada by the prospect of free land and the policies of Clifford Sifton, minister of the interior in the Liberal government of Sir Wilfrid Laurier from 1896 to 1905, who encouraged farmers to settle the Canadian west. Many organizations and agencies, including domestic and foreign navigation companies, were involved in the recruitment of immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A clandestine agreement between the Canadian government and the North Atlantic Trading Company was concluded in 1899 to carry out the systematic recruitment of members of Europe’s farming classes, preferably Scandinavians and Germans. However, since it encouraged too many “undesirable” immigrants, particularly Galicians and Ruthenians, the dominion government abandoned the agreement in 1906.

The attitude of the Austrian government towards emigration was chiefly a passive one, and formal restrictions were never introduced. Nonetheless, the Austrian ministry of the interior and the war administration did attempt to limit the exodus. Many Austrian citizens came to Canada to escape compulsory military service, and just before World War I the so-called Kontrolldienst (control service) was established to observe those leaving and to prevent men eligible for military service from crossing the border.

After the war, the Republic of Austria struggled with a weak economy as a result of heavy indemnity payments to the allied powers, the loss of former markets, and a high unemployment rate. The country’s economic problems were aggravated by an extensive political restructuring. In 1919 the Österreichische Auskunftsstelle für Auswanderer (Austrian Information Office for Emigration), later called the Wanderungsamt (Migration Office), was founded. Its goal was to provide information to potential emigrants about the country of their destination. The Austrian authorities now regarded emigration as an answer to mass unemployment and even provided some financial assistance.

Immediately after the war, Austrians were excluded from Canada because of their wartime associations. Canadian immigration regulations in 1923 classified Austria as a “non-preferred” country and limited access to “agricultural and domestic workers and sponsored immigrants.” Two years later the Canadian government came to an agreement with the Canadian Pacific and Canadian National railways that allowed the railways to bring in more immigrants from non-preferred countries. However, the classes of admissible immigrants were an obstacle for many potential newcomers from Austria; immigrants were not to be admitted to Canada unless they were willing to settle as farmers or work as farmhands or domestics, but the majority of Austrians who wished to emigrate were unemployed industrial workers or artisans. According to Austrian statistics, 79.8 percent of immigrants to Canada in 1928 had an occupational background in agriculture or forestry, 10.9 percent were dependents, 7 percent were domestic workers, and only 1.4 percent were industrial workers or artisans.

The Great Depression led the Canadian government to change its immigration policy again in 1930. Admissible immigrants now had to be “members of the immediate families of men already established in Canada and farmers with enough money to start farming at once.” The agreement with the railways was cancelled the following year. The numbers of Austrian immigrants dropped sharply from 663 in 1930–31 to 45 in 1931–32. In this inter-war period most Austrians, regardless of destination, emigrated from the provinces of Burgenland, Styria, Upper Austria, Lower Austria, and Carinthia and were between twenty-two and fifty-five years old. Approximately 30 to 40 percent were women.

The occupation of Austria by the German Reich in 1938 brought Jewish and also non-Jewish refugees to Canada; among the latter were a number of prominent individuals, including former government ministers. In the same year, Canada increased restrictions on Jewish immigration, which was unwanted for several reasons: economic problems in Canada, anti-foreign sentiment in general, and anti-Semitism in particular. A number of Austrian Jews who were in Britain at the outbreak of World War II and were interned in Canada in 1940 elected to stay. Some Austrian Jewish refugees have attempted to maintain their own ethnocultural-religious identity, but most have associated with the broader Jewish community.

Immediately after World War II, Austrians were again interested in emigration. The reasons were many, but they were primarily of an economic or political nature. Occupied for a decade by the military forces of Britain, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union, Austria faced enormous problems resulting from destruction caused by the war and interference with its economic development, especially in the eastern part of the country, which was within the Soviet-occupied zone. Limited housing, low wages, high inflation, and political insecurity were strong motives for emigration. Some people had experienced broken family ties. Others were prompted by a spirit of adventure; they wished to see the world and to work abroad for a while. Still others wanted to learn English and then return home, but most of these would remain in Canada. Austrians believed that Canada was a land of unlimited opportunities and could provide them with a better future.

During the years immediately after the war, citizens of Austria were denied admission to Canada because they were still classified as “enemy aliens.” This designation was retained until February 1948, when Austria was considered to be “an autonomous country freed from enemy occupation.” Theoretically, its citizens could now expect the same treatment for immigration purposes as western Europeans. However, Canadian inspection facilities had yet to be established in Austria. Therefore, only those Austrians who had relatives in Canada and who had been cleared for security could obtain visas. At the same time, Austria had a huge surplus of physicians and other university graduates, some of whom wanted to establish themselves in Canada. In 1949 the first Canadian immigration office in Austria was opened. A year later new immigration regulations made it easier for Austrians to settle in Canada. Although applications did not immediately increase significantly – probably because most Austrians were not yet aware of the changes – the number of immigrants doubled in 1951. After 1952 a special program created to bring agricultural workers, general labourers, domestics, nurses, and skilled and semi-skilled workers to Canada attracted many Austrians. In subsequent years they were selected for a wide range of occupational backgrounds.

Shortages of labour caused by the resurgence of the Austrian economy in the late 1940s led in 1956 to a bilateral agreement governing immigration from Austria to Canada. Prospective immigrants who applied for Canada’s “assisted passage loans” needed the approval of the Austrian provincial labour exchanges that their departure would not be detrimental to the country’s economy. In the following decades, Austrians were not in fact hindered from emigration by their own government. But the new Canadian immigration regulations of 1967, the so-called point system, led to a higher refusal rate among Austrians because it placed more emphasis on formal education, skills, and occupational demand than previous policies.

Post-World War II immigrants came from all the Austrian provinces, but a large percentage were from Upper Austria and Styria and from Burgenland, which had a long tradition of emigration. Most were in their twenties. On average, almost half were women. The majority belonged to the middle class and were generally crafts people, skilled workers, professionals, or entrepreneurs. The tendency of the last group to emigrate rose in the 1960s.

Statistics on Austrian immigration are confused and inconsistent. Prior to the post–World War II period, former citizenship and ethnic identity were combined. Thus, no accurate figures are available on the immigration of Austrians proper who came from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Errors also arose because until 1952 Canadian statistics frequently included Austrians with Germans or because the figures were based on the country of last residence. For instance, they included many displaced people who had come to Austria after World War II. The Austrian statistics on emigration from the Austro-Hungarian Empire are limited to available data from the ports of embarkation (Hamburg and Bremen). These data are inaccurate since not all possible ports were covered and they do not include emigrants who moved to Canada after living in other countries. Also, they are based on the reports of the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration, and these reports include only those Austrians who immigrated with the assistance of that body.

According to Canadian statistics, anywhere from 30,000 to 150,000 so-called Austrians immigrated to Canada between the 1880s and World War I. The more likely figure is about 200,000, although of these only 5,000, at most 10,000, were immigrants from Austria defined by post-World I borders, including those who had migrated via the United States. During the inter-war period an estimated 5,000 to 5,500 Austrians immigrated to Canada. Post-World War II immigration increased until 1956 and then dropped off considerably until 1962, when it rose continuously until 1967; however, it never reached the level established prior to 1956. Almost 35,000 individuals designated as Austrians have immigrated since the late 1940s, a figure that might be larger than the number of true Austrians. Between 1953 and 1979 about 24,000 ethnic Austrians came to Canada; of them, more than 17,000 arrived before 1960. From 1980 to 1992, 2,600 claimed Austria as their country of birth or country of last permanent residence. Since the 1980s the number of Austrian immigrants has been negligible. According to the 1991 census, nearly 94,000 Canadians said they were exclusively (27,135) or partially (66,780) of Austrian background. However, members of the community believe that the number of Austrians of single origin is higher. Their estimates range from 80,000 to 100,000.

AUSTRIANS Arrival and Settlement Arrival and Settlement

Most of the people from the Austro-Hungarian Empire who came to Canada at the end of the nineteenth century settled in the prairie provinces and became farmers. The majority of immigrants to what is now Alberta established themselves in the Edmonton area or near Lethbridge, where a mixed colony of “Austrians” existed. Some Catholics settled northwest of Saint-Albert at Rivière Qui Barre. German-speaking colonists from Galicia, most of them Lutherans, began arriving in the Dunmore district, southeast of Medicine Hat, in 1887 and 1888; they named their settlement Josefsburg. Repeated crop failures forced them in 1890 to move to the Edmonton area, where farming conditions were thought to be better. They settled at Stony Plain and at the reestablished Josefsburg (now Josephburg).

All the German-speaking immigrants from Bukovina between 1890 and 1900 established themselves in present-day Saskatchewan. A sizable group of Danube Swabians from the Banat also settled there around 1900. German-speaking immigrants from the Habsburg monarchy lived in ethnic settlements such as Mariahilf, Lemberg, Neudorf, Edenwold, and Kendal; the last of these was founded in 1901 by people who originated primarily from Galicia, Banat, Bukovina, and Austria. German-speaking Catholics settled almost exclusively in Saskatchewan; some of them came from the present-day Austrian province of Burgenland, which was then part of Hungary. Because they shared a language and the Catholic faith, they were able to create a new community with other German speakers despite their different places of origin. Before World War I, Austrians, among them many Burgenlanders, who came from the United States to the prairies brought with them experience in dealing with North American conditions.

Only 919 out of a total of 18,178 persons of Austro-Hungarian origin in Canada in 1901 lived in Ontario. The patterns of settlement among these immigrants were as diverse as their cultural backgrounds. The majority lived in rural areas, both in closed communities and in ethnically mixed districts. They were to be found in denominationally homogeneous blocks, on solitary farms, or at the edge of the northern wilderness.

Almost all immigrants to the prairies in the inter-war period joined existing colonies. Between 1926 and 1935 more than 87 percent of Austrian immigrants settled in the western provinces, in particular Manitoba (71.4 percent). Just over 10 percent went to Ontario. Most Austrians in the prairies still lived on farms or in small towns. In 1931 only 5.6 percent out of a total of 17,061 Austrians in Saskatchewan lived in the cities of Regina and Saskatoon, 4.6 percent out of 6,737 in Alberta were located in Edmonton, and 7.6 percent out of 8,858 in Manitoba resided in Winnipeg. From 1926 Burgenlanders began arriving in Edmonton. Some of them did not settle there but moved north and settled in the area between Lesser Slave Lake and Great Slave Lake. The only woman among the pioneers of that time had arrived in Canada with her husband and daughter in 1928. Immigrants from Burgenland also settled in other provinces, for example, in the Okanagan valley of British Columbia.

After World War II, about 50 percent of Austrian immigrants gave Ontario as their intended destination, followed by Quebec and Alberta; British Columbia ranked fourth. In 1991 Ontario had the largest Austrian population, with 31,310 claiming Austrian ancestry (both single- and multiple-origin responses); it was followed by British Columbia (24,535), Alberta (15,805), Saskatchewan (9,015), Manitoba (6,440), and Quebec (4,995). During the third phase of immigration, Austrians went primarily to the urban centres. They have not formed ethnic enclaves there, although some Austrians may have chosen German areas in the 1950s and early 1960s. Such areas exist in Winnipeg and Edmonton and have existed in the High Park district of Toronto and in Scarborough. Today approximately 70 percent of Austrian Canadians live in cities and towns.

AUSTRIANS Economic Life Economic Life

The experience of peasants and migrant farm workers from the Austro-Hungarian Empire did not prepare them for Canadian agriculture. In addition, partly because of their own desire to be close to their compatriots, they were settled on inferior land. This was primarily true, however, of the immigrants from the eastern parts of the empire. In spite of initial hardships, immigrants from post-1920 Austria, whether they were farmers, craftsmen, or businessmen, eventually became prosperous and comfortable. Most of the immigrants who arrived in the inter-war period had to work in agricultural and service occupations. Yet it became more and more difficult to engage in agriculture. Many immigrants, particularly those who were not agriculturalists by background, were disappointed – at first, about their employment as farm workers and later, when they were finally able to afford their own land, because of the poor conditions.

Despite the immigration regulations, most Austrians sought employment outside agriculture. Once in Canada, those classified as agricultural workers and farmers looked for employment as soon as possible as industrial workers or skilled tradesmen, or they established small businesses in cities and towns. Many of them prospered as stonemasons, tailors, paper-hangers, and mechanics. But during the Depression, a lack of jobs increased the pressure not to employ immigrants, and some newcomers returned to Austria.

Most of the immigrants in the post-1945 era knew some English and were familiar with urban life, and the many skilled tradesmen, technicians, and professionals among them were able to find employment immediately after they arrived. They might initially have to work outside their trade to survive, however, because of limited English or the non-approval of work papers, certificates, or diplomas. Graduates of Austrian universities, particularly licensed professionals, generally experienced few difficulties. Some Austrian women worked as domestics, who were almost always in short supply. Even well-educated women were employed for a short period in this domain, since in the early 1950s it was frequently the only way to gain admittance to Canada. These women tried to find other jobs as soon as possible.

AUSTRIANS Community Life Community Life

With a few exceptions, Austrians did not form special ethnic organizations until the post-World War II period. Their social life centred mainly around the church. Occasionally they supported German social and cultural associations. A few secular organizations, such as the Austrian German Society “Gemütlichkeit” of Winnipeg, were established before World War I. This club was founded in 1906 and five years later changed its name to the Austrian Hungarian Society; by 1912 it had two hundred members. Its objectives were to provide sickness and death benefits, to promote the settlement of Manitoba by assisting immigrants to find land, to establish a library, and to help members to learn the English language. During the inter-war period, social and cultural activities were provided by the Austrian Club in Waterloo, which had seventy-five members in 1937, by the Club Vergissmeinnicht (Forget-me-not), and by the Club Edelweiss in Edmonton. These societies no longer exist.

Today, Austrian organizations can be found in the major cities. The more prominent are those located in Toronto, Kingston, Ottawa, Montreal, Winnipeg, Regina, Calgary, and Vancouver. Most of the voluntary associations were formed to help recent immigrants to integrate and to provide a wide range of social and cultural activities. The Austrian Club “Edelweiss” in Toronto evolved in 1950 from the Canadian Society for Austrian Relief, which had been formed four years earlier to “help people in Austria to struggle out of the dust and depression of the post-war days.”

The social and recreational clubs usually contain subgroups composed of Austrians from distinct regional backgrounds or directed at sports, folk dancing, and women’s activities. Austrians generally prefer clubs where immigrants from their homeland predominate, although some have joined other German-speaking associations. Loyalty to ethnic organizations is strongest among first-generation Austrians who immigrated in the 1950s. With the decline of Austrian immigration and the difficulty of retaining second-generation Austrian Canadians in the clubs, the number of members has dropped sharply in recent years, and many clubs have suffered severe financial difficulties. As they have lost members, they have altered their regulations to allow Canadians who are not of Austrian origin to join. Currently, Austrian clubs generally provide facilities for all German-speaking Canadians, regardless of their background. The large Burgenlander community in Toronto established a relief office for newcomers from Burgenland within its own organization in 1963, but the decrease in new immigrants has resulted in greatly reduced activity.

Associations that serve to foster Austrian high culture appeal primarily to the middle and upper middle classes. The Canadian Austrian Society of Toronto, which was founded in 1968, is directed not only to persons of Austrian origin but also to Canadian friends of Austria regardless of their nationality, religion, and ethnic background. In addition to promoting the Austrian cultural heritage, a major objective of the society has been “to act as intermediary between Austrian cultural, artistic, professional, sportive, business and other groups and their Canadian counterparts.” For instance, the society hosted the Burgtheater Ensemble and acted as a catalyst for other such activities. Members now meet only occasionally though at regular intervals.

AUSTRIANS Family and Kinship Family and Kinship

Traditionally, the father in an Austrian family had principal responsibility for the economic welfare of his wife and children, and until the late 1960s even highly educated and trained women in Austria sometimes kept to a life based on the so-called three Ks: Kinder, Küche, Kirche (children, kitchen, church). Increasingly, however, women have contributed to the family income. Younger women in particular have tended to leave the traditional family patterns behind. In Canada, immigrant women in the post-1945 period have seen the opportunity for greater personal development and self-realization, and recent changes to family patterns in Austria have been paralleled in Canadian families. Present-day Austrian-Canadian families have on an average 1.5 to 2.0 children, and the birth rate is declining. Among second-generation Austrian Canadians, intermarriage is common. Kinship ties are of only minor concern. Today, traditional authority structures have disappeared, in particular among second-generation Austrians and those who arrived in Canada after 1960.

AUSTRIANS Culture Culture

The majority of Austrian immigrants have striven for full linguistic and cultural integration into the anglophone or francophone community within the first generation. Usually, German is only spoken at home, with German-speaking friends, and in the ethnocultural organizations. Twenty percent of first-generation Austrian Canadians speak exclusively or primarily German at home, almost 40 percent speak German and English, 35 percent use English exclusively, and 5 percent either speak mainly French, French and German, or another language. Most members of the second generation know at least some German, but only a minority have native-speaker competence. Whatever attitude parents may have towards the learning of German by their offspring, most children are not keen to speak the language. The cultural identity of the adult second generation is largely or entirely Canadian, although many of them are proud of their Austrian heritage. The question of identity is more complex among those with a multiethnic background.

Theatre, in the form of amateur performances of Austrian popular plays, is sometimes provided by the clubs, which serve also to preserve various folkloric or national traditions. Examples include the Schrammelgroup (Viennese music) of the Austrian Society of Ottawa and the Junior Schuhplattler group of the Austrian Club “Edelweiss” in Toronto. The Austria Vancouver Club has sponsored its own professional singing group, and the major activities of the Austrian International Club in Kingston are dancing and folk singing. The Burgenlander Club Toronto annually holds an evening of traditional dancing dedicated to St Martin, the patron of Burgenland. Other organizations and clubs, such as the Austrian Society of Montreal (Société Autrichienne), the Canadian Austrian Society of Toronto, the Austria Club Windsor, and the Austrian Canadian Society of Calgary (Österreichisch-Kanadische Gemeinschaft), have annual events in the grand tradition of New Year’s Eve balls, the Viennese Strauss ball, and the Viennese ball.

Although many immigrants are not familiar with Austrian high culture, others have done much to share this rich heritage with the rest of Canada. They have invited famous Austrian theatre companies to tour the country and orchestras to hold concerts. Individual persons of Austrian origin have made important contributions to the field of music, theatre, and the decorative arts. Among them have been the nineteenth-century portrait painter George Theodore Berthon, and in the twentieth century, the classical guitarist Norbert Kraft, the harpsichordist, teacher, and founder of the Toronto Baroque Ensemble Greta Kraus, the pianist and composer Anton Emil Kuerti, the violinist and conductor Luigi von Kunits, and the dancer, choreographer, and director Anna Wyman.

During World War II, Austrians who supported independence for the homeland published a German-language monthly called Donau Echo (Danube Echo; Toronto, 1942–44) and the English-language Voice of Austria (Ottawa, 1942-43), which was discontinued when its editor moved to the United States. But since it is primarily first-generation immigrants who read newspapers in their native language and the Austrian community is small, a separate press has not emerged, apart from the weekly Der Österreicher (The Austrian; Toronto, 1978–82), which became the Deutsche Presse (German Press; Toronto, 1982–) to appeal as well to Germans and Swiss. Monthly news bulletins have been issued by some Austrian-Canadian associations, and one member of the community founded a literary journal, Litera (Toronto, 1959–61).

AUSTRIANS Education and Religion Education and Religion

Most Austrian children have been enrolled in the public system. The majority of those who have gone to Catholic schools have been from strongly religious families. About half the children of first-generation Austrian immigrants also attend supplementary schools to learn the German language; however, many soon drop out. Exclusively Austrian schools do not exist, either in the public/ separate system or as supplementary institutions.

According to the 1981 census, approximately 51 percent of Austrian Canadians are Catholic, almost 38 percent are Protestant, including Mennonites, Hutterites, and Mormons, and about 11 percent do not belong to any Christian denomination or are members of other religious groups. This distribution does not reflect the denominational composition of Austria, where almost 80 percent of the population is Catholic, at least nominally. Because of the decreasing demand for services and the secularization of Canadian society, only a few churches in metropolitan areas still provide services in German. Some observant Austrian Canadians are members of German parishes where these exist; there are no congregations that are exclusively Austrian.

AUSTRIANS Politics and Intergroup Relations Politics and Intergroup Relations

Traditionally, Austrian Canadians have not been active in Canadian politics and are therefore underrepresented in public life. First-generation Austrian Canadians have been engaged primarily in establishing themselves in Canada. However, they have served on local bodies since the pre-World War I period.

Austrians in Canada have not been involved in the politics of the homeland, partly because Austria is a democratic state and so does not arouse concern among its emigrants, and partly because second-generation Austrian Canadians are usually not interested in events in their parents’ country. However, during World War II, the Canadian Friends of Austria, an organization founded at the outbreak of the war, worked for the independence of Austria. Many political refugees were active in this organization. With the end of the war in Europe and the re-establishment of the Republic of Austria, their activities ceased.

During World War I, not only German-speaking immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian Empire but also Croats, Ruthenians, and others who had little if any loyalty to the Empire experienced severe discrimination. Stigmatized as “enemy aliens,” some six thousand persons of Austro-Hungarian origin who were considered dangerous were interned. Many were military reservists. German-language institutions, including newspapers, were dissolved or banned, naturalization was suspended, and all enemy aliens had to report regularly to the authorities if they hoped to avoid internment. Their property was often damaged or destroyed. A severe shortage of workers led to the release of many internees in 1916. After the war, however, some Austro-Hungarians were involuntarily repatriated to Europe.

Although anti-German, and by default anti-Austrian, sentiment was not as pronounced in Canada during World War II, nevertheless Austrian immigrants and Austrian-born Canadians had to report regularly to the Canadian authorities, and a few were interned. Until the late 1960s Austrians occasionally experienced discrimination and were stereotyped as Nazis. However, they were much less affected by such treatment than were Germans.

In private life, the majority of immigrants, in particular those who came in the 1950s and early 1960s, have maintained contacts with other persons of Austrian or German origin, because they share a common language and have a similar cultural background. But Austrians lay great store in their own identity and do not want to be lumped together with the German community, a concern that developed as Austrians tried to distance themselves from Germans because of the stigma of Naziism and World War II.

AUSTRIANS Group Maintenance and Ethnic Commitment Group Maintenance and Ethnic Commitment

Individual commitment to the community, which is usually limited to first- and second-generation Austrian Canadians, is rooted in the cultural aspects of life, such as music, dancing, food, and the celebration of Christmas in the traditional way. As early as the second generation, members of the community are unlikely to marry within their own ethnic group. Austrians have easily assimilated into Canadian society, and the majority are Canadian citizens. Some, however, despite long residence, retain their Austrian citizenship. Since, in the public mind, immigrants from Austria have often been combined with those from Germany, they have not captured much attention as an ethnic group. Some Austrian Canadians hope that multicultural programs will help them to keep their heritage alive, whereas others believe that such maintenance should be a private matter.

AUSTRIANS Further Reading Further Reading

There are numerous works that deal with Austria and its history, including Kurt Steiner, ed., Modern Austria (Palo Alto, Calif., 1981), and Erich Zöllner, Geschichte Österreichs: Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (Vienna, 1990).

Austrian immigration over the last 150 years is surveyed in an M.A. thesis by Wolfgang Meixner, “Die österreichische Auswanderung von 1848 bis zur Gegenwart” (University of Vienna, 1991), and in Traude Horvath and Gerda Neyer, eds., Auswanderungen aus Österreich. Von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zur Gegenwart Vienna, 1996). There is little published on Austrian immigration to Canada, with the exception of a chapter in the Horvath and Neyer volume by Monika Pelz (569–90). Two general studies on the pre-World War I Austrian immigration are useful: Leopold Caro, Auswanderung und Auswanderungspolitik in Österreich (Leipzig, Germany, 1909), and Johan Chmelar, “The Austrian Emigration, 1900–1914,” Perspectives in American History, vol.7 (1973), 275–378. The study by Walter Dujmovits, Die Amerikawanderung der Burgenländer (Stegersbach, Austria, 1975), is concerned with Burgenlander immigrants to the United States and includes a survey of this group in Canada.

Until recently, literature on Austrians in Canada was limited. This situation changed with the publication of Franz Szabo, ed., Austrian Immigration to Canada: Selected Essays (Ottawa, 1996), and Frederick Engelmann, Manfred Prokop, and Franz Szabo, eds., A History of the Austrian Migration to Canada (Ottawa, 1996). An M.A. thesis by Anna Maria Pichker, “Das exklusive Exil: Kanada, seine Einwanderungs – politik and öosterreichische Flüchtlinge von 1938 bis 1945” (University of viennna, 1995), deals with World War I refugees and Canada’s immigration policies. An older, still useful, study is Kurt F.J. Paümann, “Der Einfluß österreichischer Einwanderer auf das Kulturleben in Kanada,” in Otto Hietsch, ed., Österreich und die angelsächsische Welt: Kulturbegegnungen und Vergleiche, vol.2 (Vienna and Stuttgart, Germany, 1968), 188–201, which contains profiles of individual Austrian Canadians and an analysis of the influence of Austrian immigrants on Canadian cultural life. The study edited by John Norris, Strangers Entertained: A History of the Ethnic Groups of British Columbia (Vancouver, 1976), includes a chapter on Austrians in British Columbia.

More generally, Austrians are also included in studies of Germans in Canada, including Gerhard Bassler, The German-Canadian Mosaic Today and Yesterday: Identities, Roots, and Heritage (Ottawa, 1991); Rudolf A. Helling, A Socio-Economic History of German-Canadians: They, Too, Founded Canada (Wiesbaden, Germany, 1984); and Heinz Lehmann, The German Canadians 1750–1937: Immigration, Settlement and Culture, edited, translated, and introduced by Gerhard Bassler (St John’s, 1986).

Primary sources for the study of Austrians in Canada are housed in the National Archives of Canada, Ottawa, and documents in the collection known as RG 76, in particular, include considerable information on interwar and post–World War II Austrian immigration to Canada. With the exception of the Archives of Ontario (Toronto), archives in other provinces contain relatively little material dealing specifically with Austrians. Among private repositories, the Glenbow Museum and Archives in Calgary, Alberta, holds noteworthy materials, as does the Multicultural History Society of Ontario (Toronto) in its oral-history collection. Materials on Austrian immigration to Canada and settlement in the country in the pre–World War I and inter-war periods are available in the Austrian State Archives, Vienna.

MICHAELA C. SCHOBER