From: The Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples/Aboriginals: Algonquians/ Plains/Eldon Yellowhorn
Plains Algonquian is a generic term that describes the linguistically related groups identified as Blackfoot, Cree, and Ojibwa. The Blackfoot Confederacy, as it is commonly known, includes the Blood, Peigan, and Blackfoot and its traditional lands were in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan. The Plains Cree comprise the western branch of the Cree people, and their traditional lands lay adjacent to the parklands of central Alberta and southern Saskatchewan. The Plains Ojibwa, who inhabited parts of central Saskatchewan and southern Manitoba, also comprise one branch of a larger Ojibwa cultural group. The size of the pre-contact population of all northern plains Indians is unknown, but what is clear is that the number later fell precipitously, partly because of epidemic diseases that devastated the region in 1781, 1819, 1837, 1845, 1864, and 1869. In the mid-1980s the population was about 65,000, with 16,000 in southern Alberta, 20,000 in southern Saskatchewan, and 28,000 in southern Manitoba. Though the lifestyles and material culture of all three groups have much in common, their similiarities should not be construed as homogeneity; variety was also a characteristic of the Plains Algonquians.
Plains Cree speakers call themselves Iyinow, which translates as “the real people.” The term “Cree” has an obscure and complex origin; however, it has become the accepted term to describe a large group spread out over an expansive geographic region. The name Blackfoot is a translation of the word Siksika, the Blackfoot’s name for themselves; Kainai, the Blood’s name for themselves, is a corrupt form of a-kainaw, meaning “many chiefs”; and the Peigan’s self-designation, Pikuni, is a corruption of apik’uni, “badly tanned robe.” Blackfoot, Cree, and Ojibwa speakers speak mutually unintelligible languages, though the relatedness of these languages is readily observable in the similarity of individual words, which not only sound the same but also carry the same meaning, and more particularly in the syntax.
The geological record offers an explanation of Plains Algonquian origins. Many thousands of years ago, episodic global cooling caused a succession of ice ages during which continental glaciers advanced out of the mountains and from the north and covered much of Canada. River systems could not drain into the ocean and the impounded water formed large inland lakes in front of ice dams. These glacial lakes flooded vast areas, easily exceeding the present Great Lakes system in size, and the altered landscape was dominated by water. The present landscape, scarred by the ebb and flow of continental glaciation, emerged approximately 12,000 years ago with the collapse of the continental glaciers. Glacial lakes, like Lake Agassiz, disappeared when drainage to the ocean was restored. Remnant lakes, like Lake Winnipeg, survive to the present, but traces of the glacial lakes remain visible in the form of stranded shorelines. By 6,000 years ago all of northern North America was free of glacial ice. Plants and animals followed the retreating glaciers right to the shores of Hudson Bay, and in turn they were followed by the first people, who, by about 200 C.E., had occupied all the suitable habitats along the shores of the glacial lakes, intensively exploiting the local floral, faunal, and lithic resources.
Algonquian cultures at this time probably would not have been recognizable as Cree, Blackfoot, or Ojibwa; instead, they were represented by an undifferentiated proto-Algonquian ancestral culture. Their languages were related more closely, perhaps existing as mutually intelligible dialects. Likewise, their customs and technology were similar. However, new modes of travel, technological innovations in food gathering, and adaptation to local resources built up the momentum of culture change. Geographic isolation placed each group on a unique trajectory, the cumulative effects of which resulted in distinct cultures and languages.
The arrival of the written word, in the journals of fur traders, surveyors, and missionaries, marks the beginning of history on the northern plains. Many of the names associated with contemporary native people in the west first appeared in print during this time, and a number of them fell short of accuracy. For example, David Thompson, the first European to visit the Peigan in 1787, identified them as “Peeagan,” a misnomer that has endured to this day in the modified form of “Peigan.” The ethnographic record also designated different tribes by geography and assigned each a homeland based on the impressions of the various authors who travelled among them. The Plains Cree were said to have originated in the region between Hudson Bay and Lake Superior, while the Plains Ojibwa were thought to have migrated to the plains from the Lake Superior area. Even the Blackfoot, the archetypal plains Indians, have been assigned a Woodland origin in the vicinity of the Eagle Hills in central Saskatchewan, from where they expanded westward just prior to European contact. Recently, historians have begun to reassess the accuracy of these accounts. It may be more than coincidence that these tribes appeared to be migrating westward at the same time and in the same direction that explorers, fur traders, and missionaries were travelling. In short, the supposed locations of tribal homelands and subsequent westerly migrations may reflect more the journeys of whites than actual tribal movements.
Today, the Plains Algonquian peoples live in communities known as reserves, the genesis of which is deeply rooted in the process of nineteenth-century nation-building. Post-Confederation Canada was determined to solidify its claim to the former Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) territory of Rupert’s Land, which it had annexed in 1870. The sparse population of Canadians in this region, the desire to incorporate the colony of British Columbia into the federation, and the search for new agricultural land prompted the young country to embark on the ambitious project of building a transcontinental railway. Accomplishing this objective would mean crossing unceded territory occupied by the various tribes of Indians.
Following the policy established in the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the Canadian government established a treaty commission which was given the mandate of negotiating the acquisition of Indian lands, to which, under the proclamation, the Indians themselves held title. Thus, between 1870 and 1877, commissioners traversed the plains negotiating treaties with the Plains Algonquian peoples. Provisions in each treaty varied, but in essence they all contained clauses for exchanging aboriginal title to the land for treaty lands and annuities as well as certain rights like hunting and fishing. Treaties 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7 became the legal instruments which allowed Canada to claim the northern plains up to the Rocky Mountains.
Far from being passive observers of these developments, the Plains Algonquians were well aware of the events unfolding to the east and south of them. Some sought accommodation to the new regime and placed their faith in the treaty process. The Plains Ojibwa bands signed Treaties 1 and 2 in 1871, primarily because their traditional lands were already the core of white settlement in western Canada. Treaty 4 was signed by leaders of Cree and Saulteaux bands in 1874, and two years later Cree leaders signed Treaty 6. The Blackfoot Confederacy, as the westernmost tribal entity, did not meet with the Treaty Commission until 1877, at which time it signed Treaty 7. In all these cases, the reserved lands belonged to the Crown, which set them aside for the use and benefit of the Indians. The Indians did not own the reserved lands; ownership rested with the Crown.
The treaties created twenty-three reserves in southern Manitoba and southeastern Saskatchewan for the Plains Ojibwa.The Plains Cree settled on twenty-four reserves in southern Saskatchewan and southern Alberta. The Blackfoot Confederacy occupied three reserves in southern Alberta. Years later, in 1912 and 1918, the government sold half the Blackfoot reserve, located just east of present-day Calgary.
Each reserve was located within the traditional territory of the signatory tribes; however, the reserves varied in size depending on the land-granting formula of the specific treaty. For example, Treaty 1 stipulated that each family of five would receive 160 acres of land, but Treaty 7 provided 640 acres for each family of five. The Plains Cree and Plains Ojibwa received land based on band units, but the Blackfoot Confederacy received land as tribal units, so that the Peigan, Blood, and Blackfoot each received their own reserve.
In the pre-treaty era, native bands were loosely organized, autonomous entities led by individuals whose leadership attracted followers. However, bands as defined in the Indian Act are a body of Indians who can live on a reserve for the purposes of administration. At present, each band is a legal entity which can choose its leaders for the office of chief and council according to procedures established in the Indian Act. Customary rules apply in some instances and provide an alternative to the format described in the act. The mechanics of choosing the chief and council operate on democratic principles – one person, one vote – in a secret ballot. There can be only one chief, with a minimum of two councillors and a maximum of twelve; however, a set formula (1 per 100 band members) determines the number of councillors. Typically, the term of office is two years, although by-elections can be called to fill vacant seats.
Outside the individual band, a common grouping consists of bands in a given treaty area; one such body is the Treaty 7 Tribal Council. Other organizations span provincial boundaries and treaty areas; these include the Indian Association of Alberta, the Federation of Saskatchewan Indians, and the Assembly of Manitoba chiefs. At the national level, Plains Algonquian bands are members of the Assembly of First Nations.
