Forms of Ethnic Identity

The retention of ethnic identity from one generation to another does not necessarily mean the continuance of both external and internal aspects, or of all the components of each aspect to the same degree. Some elements may be retained more than others, and some not at all. A member of the third generation may subjectively identify with his or her ethnic group without having any knowledge of the ethnic language and without practising the group’s traditions or participating in its organizations. Conversely, he or she may practise some traditions without having strong feelings of attachment to the group. Also, elements of external identity may acquire a different subjective meaning for various generations, ethnic groups, or sub-groups within the same ethnic group. Therefore it should not be assumed that the ethnic identity retained by the third generation is the same as that held by the first or the second. Furthermore, an ever-increasing number of individuals in multi-ethnic societies have more than one identity.

Various combinations of external and internal components in a particular individual allow us to distinguish a number of types of ethnic identity. For example, a high level of retention in the practice of ethnic traditions, accompanied by a low level of such subjective elements as feelings of group obligation, might be described as a ritualistic-traditional ethnic identity. By contrast, a high sense of group obligation, together with limited practice of traditions, would represent a completely different form – an ideological identity – with distinct implications for the collective aspects of ethnic group behaviour. Negative images of one’s own group, combined with a high degree of awareness of ancestry, might be called a rebellious identity, while positive images of the ancestral group, together with frequent practice of highly selected traditions, particularly in the third or subsequent generations, could be described as an identity of ethnic rediscovery. Yet another type, that of ethnic functional identity, might combine the practice of selected public traditions and feelings of attachment to the group with an emphasis on pragmatic opportunities, such as those of an occupational, economic, or political nature, and reliance on the community for the fulfilment of personal ambitions. Finally, the retention of a few selected images of one’s ancestral group without any feelings of obligation towards it and only the occasional recreational practice of traditions constitutes yet another form, the ethnic secular identity.

A person may change the form of his or her identity at different periods in life or may include elements of several or all forms of identity. It can be assumed, however, that at any given time one form will tend to predominate and that for most individuals frequent shifts from one type to another do not happen easily. There is evidence to show that particular generations tend to develop predominantly one form. Thus the first generation of minority ethnic groups usually possesses a traditional type of identity, the second generation a rebellious one, and the third or later generations a greater diversity in that they acquire identities of ethnic rediscovery or the functional or secular forms.

A multi-ethnic society inevitably produces multiple ethnic identities. A single identity occurs either when both parents claimed to be of the same ethnicity or when, in a multi-ethnic society, an individual identifies only with the general society, without any knowledge of his or her ancestors other than those of the predominant ethnic group. But such cases are probably the exception rather than the rule. Multiple identities can be said to be of two types. Hyphenated ones reflect an individual’s identification with both the larger society and his or her ancestral ethnicity, such as in the designation “Canadian-Italian.” Or they may represent multiple ancestral ethnicities with or without reference to the society at large, as, for example, in the terms “Ukrainian-English,” “Scottish-Irish,” “Japanese-Polish,” or “Italian-Irish-Canadian,” “Korean-Scottish-Canadian,” “Polish-Jewish-American,” and the like. There is, however, some empirical evidence to suggest that individuals with multiple ancestral identities tend to choose one – the father’s – as being more important to them. This phenomenon indicates that individuals usually organize their multiple identities in some meaningful, hierarchical order. But variation is possible here also, and more research is needed to determine the patterns that occur.