Further Reading

A useful issue- and problem-oriented introduction to German history is Dietrich Orlow, A History of Modern Germany (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1987; 3rd ed. 1995), which should be consulted in combination with Geoffrey Barraclough, The Origins of Modern Germany (Oxford, U.K., 1946; repr. 1988). For the context on overseas emigration with references to Canada see Hans Fenske, “International Migration: Germany in the Eighteenth Century,” Central European History, vol.13, no.4 (1980), 332–47; Andreas Brinck, Die deutsche Auswanderungswelle in die britischen Kolonien Nordamerikas um die Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts (The German Emigration Wave to the British Colonies of North America around the Mid-eighteenth Century; Stuttgart, Germany, 1993); Peter Marschalck, Deutsche Überseewanderung im 19. Jahrhundert (German Overseas Migration in the Nineteenth Century; Stuttgart, 1973); and Hartmut Bickelmann, Die deutsche Überseeauswanderung in der Weimarer Zeit (The German Emigration Overseas during the Weimar Republic; Wiesbaden, Germany, 1980). An excellent survey of migrations into and out of Germany is Klaus J. Bade, ed., Deutsche im Ausland–Fremde in Deutschland: Migration in Geschichte und Gegenwart (Germans Abroad – Foreigners in Germany: Migration Past and Present; Munich, 1992).

The standard reference works on the history of German Canadians are Heinz Lehmann’s two monographs on Germans in eastern and western Canada, originally published in German in 1931 and 1939. They have been re-edited and translated in one volume, and introduced with a review of recent research by Gerhard P. Bassler, under the title The German Canadians, 1750–1937: Immigration, Settlement and Culture (St John’s, Nfld., 1986). Other concise treatments are Rudolf A. Helling, A Socio-Economic History of German-Canadians: They, Too, Founded Canada (Wiesbaden, 1984); Gerhard P. Bassler, The German Canadian Mosaic Today and Yesterday: Identities, Roots, and Heritage (Ottawa, 1991); and Hartmut Froeschle, “The German-Canadians: A Concise Survey,” German-Canadian Yearbook, vol.12 (1992), 1–78. Froeschle has also published “German Canadiana: A Bibliography,” German-Canadian Yearbook, vol.11 (1990).

Important monographs on select episodes of pre-World War I immigration, settlement, and culture are H.W. Debor, 1664–1964: Die Deutschen in der Provinz Quebec (1664–1964: The Germans in the Province of Quebec; Montreal, 1963); Winthrop P. Bell, The ‘Foreign Protestants’ and the Settlement of Nova Scotia: The History of a Piece of Arrested British Colonial Policy in the Eighteenth Century (Toronto, 1961); Jean Pierre Wilhelmy, Les mercenaires allemands au Québec du XVIIIe siècle et leur apport a la population (Beloeil, Que., 1984); Susan Burke and Matthew H. Hill, eds., From Pennsylvania to Waterloo: Pennsylvania-German Folk Culture in Transition (Kitchener, Ont., 1991); Werner Bausenhart, German Immigration and Assimilation in Ontario, 1783–1918 (New York, 1989); Herbert Karl Kalbfleisch, The History of the Pioneer German Language Press of Ontario, 1835–1918 (Toronto, 1968); Gottlieb Leibbrandt, Little Paradise: The Saga of the German Canadians of Waterloo County, Ontario, 1800–1975 (Kitchener, Ont., 1980); John English and Kenneth McLaughlin, Kitchener: An Illustrated History (Waterloo, Ont., 1983); Peter Hessel, Destination Ottawa Valley (Ottawa, 1984); Brenda Lee-Whiting, Harvest of Stones: The German Settlement in Renfrew County (Toronto, 1985); and Arthur Grenke, The German Community in Winnipeg, 1872 to 1919 (New York, 1991).

There are no books comprehensively treating the world war and interwar periods of the twentieth century. Barbara M. Wilson, Ontario and the First World War, 1914–1918 (Toronto, 1977), is insightful. Patricia O. McKegney, The Kaiser’s Bust: A Study of Wartime Propaganda in Berlin, Ontario, 1914–1918 (Wellesley, Ont., 1991), and W.R. Chadwick, The Battle for Berlin, Ontario: An Historical Drama (Waterloo, Ont., 1992), examine the renaming of Berlin, Ontario. A scholarly investigation of the Nazi influence among German Canadians is Jonathan Wagner, Brothers Beyond the Sea: National Socialism in Canada (Waterloo, 1981). The context of arrest and internment in World War II is analysed by Robert H. Keyserlingk, “Agents within the Gates: The Search for Nazi Subversives in Canada During World War II,” Canadian Historical Review, vol.66, no.2 (1985), 211–39. The fate of the Third Reich refugees deported to Canada in 1940 is explored in Eric Koch, Deemed Suspect: A Wartime Blunder (Toronto, 1980), and Ted Jones, Both Sides of the Wire: The Fredericton Internment Camp (Fredericton, 1988).

Notable scholarly monographs on aspects of post– World War II immigration are Fritz Wieden, The Trans-Canada Alliance of German Canadians: A Study in Culture (Windsor, Ont., 1985); and the insightful collection of essays on major literary figures by Walter E. Riedel, ed., The Old World and the New: Literary Perspectives of German-Canadians (Toronto, 1984). Acculturation and language maintenance have been analysed by Andrea Koch-Kraft, Deutsche in Kanada: Einwanderung und Adaption (Germans in Canada: Immigration and Adaptation; Bochum, Germany, 1990); Leopold Auburger, et al., Deutsch als Muttersprache in Kanada (Wiesbaden, 1977); Beatrice Stadler, Language Maintenance and Assimilation: The Case of Selected German-Speaking Immigrants in Vancouver (Vancouver, 1983); Manfred Prokop, The German Language in Alberta: Maintenance and Teaching (Edmonton, 1990); Karin Hardt-Dhatt, Étude sociolinguistique sur l’intégration de l’immigrant allemand au milieu québécois (Quebec City, 1976); and Leo Driedger and Peter Hengstenberg, “Non-Official Multilingualism: Factors Affecting German Language Competence, Use and Maintenance in Canada,” Canadian Ethnic Studies, vol.18, no.3 (1986), 91–109.

The record of German-Canadian traditional art and music are explored in Magnus Einarsson and Helga Benndorf Taylor, eds., Just for Nice: German-Canadian Folk Art (Hull, Que., 1993); Susan M. Burke and Matthew H. Hill, eds., From Pennsylvania to Waterloo: Pennsylvania-German Folk Culture in Transition (Kitchener, 1991); Michael Bird and Terry Kobayashi, A Splendid Harvest: Germanic Folk and Decorative Art in Canada (Toronto, 1981); and Helmut Kallmann, A History of Music in Canada 1534–1914 (Toronto, 1960).

On the experience of Germans in Newfoundland and Labrador, apart from Chapters 27 and 30 in Bassler’s The German Canadian Mosaic Today and Yesterday, see Bassler, Sanctuary Denied: Refugees from the Third Reich and Newfoundland Immigration Policy, 1906–1949 (St John’s, Nfld., 1992), and his articles “The German Experience in Newfoundland to 1914: Migrations, Connections, Images,” in P. Liddell and W. Riedel, eds., Begegnungen – Connections: Proceedings of Symposium VII on German-Canadian Studies (Victoria, 1991), 1–13; “The Enemy Alien Experience in Newfoundland 1914-1918,” Canadian Ethnic Studies, vol.20, no.3 (1988), 42–62; “Central Europeans in Post-Confederation St John’s, Newfoundland: Immigration and Adjustment,” ibid., vol.18, no.3 (1986), 37–46; and “‘Develop or Perish’: Joseph R. Smallwood and Newfoundland’s Quest for German Industry, 1950– 1953,” Acadiensis, vol.15, no.2 (1986), 93–119.

Many important findings on political, social, economic, and linguistic developments are available only in such unpublished dissertations as J.A. Boudreau, “The Enemy Alien Problem in Canada, 1914–1921” (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, 1965); John Joseph Kelly, “The Prisoner of War Camps in Canada, 1939–1947” (M.A. thesis, University of Windsor, 1976); Ruth Gumpp, “Ethnicity and Assimilation: German Postwar Immigrants in Vancouver, 1945–1970” (M.A. thesis, University of British Columbia, 1989); Robert Rutherdale, “The Home Front: Social Transformation in Lethbridge, Guelph, and Trois Rivières during the Great War” (Ph.D. thesis, York University, 1992); Alan Anderson, “Assimilation in the Bloc Settlements of North-Central Saskatchewan: A Comparative Study of Identity Change among Seven Ethno-Religious Groups in a Canadian Prairie Region” (Ph.D. thesis, University of Saskatchewan, 1972); and Gisela Forchner, “Growing Up Canadian: Twelve Case Studies of German Immigrant Families in Alberta,” (Ph.D. thesis, University of Alberta, 1983).

The bulk of the primary sources relating to the origins of German-speaking people and their migrations to Canada still await exploration. These sources can be found in repositories of pertinent government records and private collections held in European archives from Potsdam, Bonn, Koblenz, Vienna, and Basel to Riga, Budapest, and Moscow, as well as in the National Archives in Ottawa and other North American public archives. Arthur Grenke of the National Archives of Canada published a guide to the Archival Sources for the Study of German Language Groups in Canada (Ottawa, 1989).